Week 3, Checkpoint, Sequential and Selection Process Control Structure Essay Example for Free

Week 3, Checkpoint, Sequential and Selection Process Control Structure Essay Week 3, Checkpoint, Sequential and Selection Process Control Structure Payroll tax Calculation System Requirements -Salary Range 1 is 0.00 -1,499.99 -Salary Range 2 is 1,500.00-2,999.99 -Salary Range 3 is 3,000.00-4,999.99 -Salary Range 4 is 5,000.00-7,999.99 -Salary Range 5 is 8,000.00-14,999.99 -If the Salary Range is greater than 0.00, then the tax base is 0.00 plus 15% of the amount over 0.00 (amount-0.00*15%+0.00) -If the Salary Range is greater than 1,500.00, then the tax base is $225.00 plus 16% of the amount in excess of 1,500.00 (amount -1,500.00*16%+225.00) -If the Salary Range is greater than 3,000.00, then the tax base is 5. 00 plus 18% of the amount in excess of 3,000.00 (amount-3,000.00*18%+465.00) -If the Salary Range is greater than 5,000.00, then the tax base is $825.00 plus 20% of the amount in excess of 5,000.00 (amount-5,000.00*20%+825.00) -If the Salary Range is greater than 8,000.00, then the tax base is $1425.00 plus 25% of the amount in excess of 8,000.00 (amount-8,000.00*25%+1425.00) Input-Process-Output Chart Input Process Output (keyboard) Get the amount of salary earned GrossSalary (integer) Salary (integer) Calculate the total tax and adjusted net salary GrossSalary (integer) BaseTax (float) AddlTax (float) TotalTax (float) NetSalary (float) GrossSalary (integer) BaseTax (float) AddlTax (float) TotalTax (float) NetSalary (float) Display the Gross Salary, Base Tax, Additional Tax and Adjusted Net Salary (output to screen) FLOWCHARTs Main Module Calculate Net Salary Module DisplayGrossSalaryBaseTaxAdditionalTaxNetSalary Module PSEUDOCODE Main Module Declare GrossSalary as Integer Declare BaseTax as Float Declare BaseSalary as Float Declare AddlTax as Float Declare TotalTax as Float Declare NetSalary as Float Print â€Å"Enter the amount of the Gross Salary earned† Input GrossSalary Call CalculateNetSalary Module Call DisplayGrossSalaryBaseTaxAdditionalTaxNetSalary Module End Main Module CalculateNetSalary Module NetSalary = GrossSalary – BaseTax – (GrossSalary – BaseSalary * AddlTax) If GrossSalary 0.00 1,500.00 Then BaseTax = 0.00 BaseSalary = 0.00 AddlTax = (Gross Salary – BaseSalary) * 0.15 End if If GrossSalary 1,500.00 3,000.00 Then BaseTax = 225.00 BaseSalary = 1,500.00 AddlTax = (Gross Salary – BaseSalary) * 0.16 End if If GrossSalary 3,000.00 5,000.00 Then BaseTax = 465.00 BaseSalary = 3,000.00 AddlTax = (Gross Salary – BaseSalary) * 0.18 End if If GrossSalary 5,000.00 8,000.00 Then BaseTax = 825.00 BaseSalary = 5,000.00 AddlTax = (Gross Salary – BaseSalary) * 0.20 End if If GrossSalary 8,000.00 15,000.00 Then BaseTax = 1,425.00 BaseSalary = 8,000.00 AddlTax = (Gross Salary – BaseSalary) * 0.25 End if If GrossSalary 15,000.00 Then BaseTax = 1,425.00 BaseSalary = 8,000.00 AddlTax = (Gross Salary – BaseSalary) * 0..25 End if GrossSalary – BaseTax – (GrossSalary – BaseSalary * AddlTax) End CaclulateNetSalary Module DisplayGrossSalaryBaseTaxAddlTaxNetSalary Module Print â€Å"Employee Gross Pay, Tax and Net Pay Breakdown† Print â€Å"Gross Salary† GrossSalary Print â€Å"Base Tax† BaseTax Print â€Å"Additional Tax† AddlTax Print â€Å"Net Salary† * NetSalary End DisplayGrossSalaryBaseTaxAddlTaxNetSalary Module Test Values Input Expected Output Comments Salary = 0.00 Tax = 0.00 Lowest salary in salary range 1 Salary = -1,000.00 Error Message Out of range condition Salary = 1,000.00 Tax = 150.00 Midrange salary in salary range 1 Salary= 1,499.99 Tax = 225.00 Highest salary in salary range 1 Salary = 1,500.00 Tax = 225.00 Lowest salary in salary range 2 Salary = 2,250.00 Tax = 345.00 Midrange salary in salary range 2 Salary = 2,999.99 Tax = 465.00 Highest salary in salary range 2 Salary = 3,000.00 Tax = 465.00 Lowest salary in salary range 3 Salary = 4,000.00 Tax = 645.00 Midrange salary in salary range 3 Salary = 4,999.99 Tax = 825.00 Highest salary in salary range 3 Salary = 5,000.00 Tax = 825.00 Lowest salary in salary range 4 Salary = 6,500.00 Tax = 1,095.00 Midrange salary in salary range 4 Salary = 7,999.99 Tax = 1,425.00 Highest salary in salary range 4 Salary = 8,000.00 Tax = 1,425.00 Lowest salary in salary range 5 Salary = 11,500.00 Tax = 2,300.00 Midrange salary in salary range 5 Salary = 14,999.99 Tax = 3,175.00 Highest salary in salary range 5 Salary = 15,000.00 Tax = 3,175.00 Salary that exceeds the highest salary in salary range 5 by 0.01 Salary = 100,000.00 Tax = 24,425.00 Salary that exceeds the highest salary in salary range 5

Self Objectification and the Sexualization of Girls

Self Objectification and the Sexualization of Girls Contemporary Western culture has essentially commodified the female body and form and we now live in a society where womens bodies tend to be valued as appearance-based, sexual objects; objects that can be viewed and appraised, bought and sold, and ultimately consumed, by other individuals and society as a whole. Sexual objectification of the female body exists along a continuum ranging from the literal (e.g., human sex trafficking, modeling, participating in pageants) to figurative (e.g., media representations, using womens bodies in advertising). Further, sexual objectification represents both a cultural as well as interpersonal phenomenon; one in which women and girls are reduced to and primarily valued for their appearance and, more specifically, their ability to conform to societys increasingly narrow standards for a sexually desirable body. Thus, the experience of sexual objectification can be both direct (e.g., women and girls personal experiences of being judged on their appe arance and sexual desirability) as well as indirect (i.e., women and girls observation of the treatment and sexual objectification of other women and girls) (Crawford et al., 2009). A number of feminist theorists (e.g., Kaschak, 1992; Ussher, 1989) have argued that one of the many potential consequences of living in a society of pervasive sexual objectification, girls and women will internalize this sexual objectification and begin to objectify themselves. That is, over time women learn, through both their interpersonal experiences and vicarious observation of society and popular culture, that their looks matter, that other peoples appraisal of their appearance can determine how they are treated, and, these evaluations can even affect the quality of their social and economic lives. Objectification theory (Fredrickson Roberts, 1997) is a framework for understanding a variety of psychological and physical consequences women may face as a result of living in a culture that sexually objectifies their bodies. This theory describes the process through which women internalize both the belief that appearance is critical component of womens worth as well as cultures standards of near physical perfection and then ultimately determine their value as an individual based on their ability to meet these standards (Crawford et al., 2009). However, as each successive cohort of women since the late 1950s has faced standards of thinness and beauty that are increasingly more difficult to achieve (Garner et al., 1980; Wiseman et al., 1992), the current cultural body and appearance standards for women are now both incredibly unhealthy as well as virtually unattainable (Sptizer, Henderson, Zivian, 1999). For those women who connect these standards to their identity and self-worth, the failure to achieve or compare to this idealized female body is likely to result in feelings of shame and anxiety about their bodies (Bartky, 1988; Lewis, 2000). The traditional view of self-objectification (i.e., valuing ones body more on the basis of outward appearance than performance, health, or function), in turn, is theorized to be associated with an array of emotional and physical consequences, including an increase in body shame, body dissatisfaction, decreased awareness of internal states, depression, sexual dysfunction, and symptoms of eating disorders (Noll Fredrickson, 1998). In the literature, the concept of self-objectification has been used interchangeably with the term objectified body consciousness. McKinley and Hydes (1996) similar construct of objectified body consciousness consists of three primary components: Self-surveillance, body shame, and appearance control. An individual with an objectified body consciousness closely monitors their body from the view of a third person, exhibits body shame when they fail to achieve the cultural expectations, and believes that individuals are able to control their appearance, respectively. Over the last decade, a considerable body of evidence has been documented in support of the proposed tenets of these theories among both adult and adolescent women within a variety of contexts (for an extensive review: Moradi Huang, 2008). Self-objectification and objectified body consciousness have been empirically linked to a plethora of negative psychosocial and physical outcomes, including low body esteem (McKinley, 1998, 1999; McKinley Hyde, 1996; Noll Fredrickson, 1998), depression (Harrison Frederickson, 2003; Miner-Rubino, Twenge, Fredrickson, 2002; Muehlenkamp Saris-Baglama, 2002; Tolman et al., 2006), restrictive eating and eating disorders (Fredrickson et al., 1998; McKinley, 1999; Muehlenkamp Saris-Baglama, 2002; Noll Fredrickson, 1998; Slater Tiggemann, 2002; Tiggemann Lynch, 2001; Tiggemann Slater, 2001), sexual dysfunction (Roberts Gettman, 2004; Wiederman, 2001) and even an increased likelihood of smoking cigarettes (Harrell, 2002). Additionally, experimen tal induction of temporary states of self-objectification has resulted in decreased performance, both physical and cognitive. In one study of over 200 girls, aged 10 to 17 years, Frederickson and Harrison (2005) found that increasing levels of self-objectification predicted poorer motor performance while throwing a softball. Additionally, in their now infamous study, Frederickson and colleagues (1998) found that after asking women to try on a swimsuit and evaluate their appearance in a mirror, these women performed worse on a short math test compared to the women in the control group who completed the same appearance evaluation task in a sweater; findings which have been consistently replicated across multiple sexes and sexual orientations (Hebl, King, Lin, 2004; Martins, Tiggemann, Kirkbride, 2007). To date, much of this research has been conducted utilizing convenience samples of predominately U.S., undergraduate university students (e.g., Miner-Rubino et al., 2002; Morry Staska, 2001; Muelenkamp Saris-Baglama, 2002; Quinn, Kallen, Cathey, 2006) as well as other subgroups vulnerable to objectification, such as dancers (Parsons Betz, 2001; Slater Tiggemann, 2002; Tiggemann Slater, 2001) in part due to their high rates of body dissatisfaction and eating disorders as well as the perceived likelihood of these groups experiencing sexually objectifying situations. While these characteristics certainly make these groups ideal for testing predictions based on objectification theory and the objectified body consciousness construct, they also mean that demographic qualities such as age range, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity are restricted in comparison to the general population. This has greatly limited the generalizability of the findings to other groups of women and made it d ifficult to investigate developmental aspects of self-objectification. Furthermore, given the ubiquitous nature of the sexual objectification of women, self-objectification and an objectified body consciousness are likely to be relevant constructs in the lives of all women. This line of research is far from complete and prior studies and reviews have repeatedly called for additional research addressing group specific manifestations of self-objectification and its related concepts and outcomes within the framework of objectification theory. Despite the notion and evidence to suggest that eating and body image issues begin to develop prior to adolescence, from a developmental perspective, preadolescent girls remain one group that has been understudied to this date. Puberty and Adolescence One potential reason for this exclusion is due to the particular importance assigned to the contribution and timing of puberty in the emergence of self-objectification by both objectification theory as well as objectified body consciousness theory. Specifically, as girls physically and sexually develop into their mature adult forms, their bodies are increasingly judged and commented upon, and subjected to sexual objectification from others, which, according to objectification theory, results in girls adopting a outsiders view of their own bodies to ensure compliance with the social standard (Fredrickson Roberts, 1997). Although there is considerable variation in the individual timing and tempo of puberty (Tanner, 1972), research in the related, albeit more general, areas of body image and body dissatisfaction have routinely shown puberty to be an important risk factor for a variety of psychosocial problems in adolescence, including depression and eating disorders (Angold, Costello, Worthman, 1998; Stice, Agras, Hammer, 1999; Weichold, Silbereisen, Schmitt-Rodermund, 2003). This work in the areas of body image and body dissatisfaction suggests three primary ways in which physical development during puberty could result in body shame. First, the start of puberty initiates a series of dramatic appearance related changes for most adolescents. For example, normal female pubertal development involves the addition of approximately 24 pounds of body fat (Warren, 1983) which represents a typical change in body fat composition from about 16% to 27% and a muscle-to-fat ratio of 5 to 4 by the end of puberty (Brown et al., 2010; Smoll Schutz, 1990). This weight gain and increase in body fat is entirely inconsistent with the current social ideal of an ultra thin, prepubertal, female body ideal and a likely source of adolescent girls dissatisfaction with their bodies (Graber et al., 1994; Spitzer, Henderson, Zivian, 1999; Stice Whitenton, 2002). Similarly, all of these sudden physical changes may redirect or enhance adolescents already greater tendency toward self-consciousness (Jones, 2004; Rankin et al., 2004). Some of the previously described body image research with adults supports this concept and has shown that directing individuals attention to their physical appearance, even temporarily, can result in increased reports of self-surveillance as well as body shame (e.g., Fredrickson et al., 1998; Hebl, King, Lin, 2004; Martins, Tiggemann, Kirkbride, 2007). Finally, in addition to directing adolescents attention to their own physical appearance, the physical changes of puberty likely direct others attention to the adolesce nts body as well; attention that is commonly in the form of peer sexual harassment, particularly for early developing girls (American Association of University Women, 2001). A growing body of research suggests that sexual harassment during adolescence is normative and related to pubertal development (McMaster et al., 2002; Murnen Smolak, 2000). Likewise, in a study of 166 girls aged 10- to 12-years-old (mean age 11.2 years), Lindberg, Grabe, Hyde (2007) showed that more advanced pubertal development and greater sexual harassment from peers predicted increases in both girls engagement in self-surveillance as well as body shame. Consequently, much of the research on the tenets of self-objectification and objectified body consciousness, as well as the proposed psychosocial outcomes has focused on the experiences of mostly post pubertal adolescents and young adults. However, despite the proposed role of puberty in the development of self-objectification; research in related areas suggests that body image concerns are likely starting much earlier than puberty. Numerous researchers have documented that body image concerns and dissatisfaction are significant for most adolescent girls in both clinical and non clinical samples (Bunnell et al., 1992; Smolak Levine, 2001; Thompson et al., 1999b), regardless of eating pathology or weight (Rodin, Silberstein, Streigel-Moore, 1985); findings which have subsequently been explained as normative discontent. In other words, because a majority of women tend to be dissatisfied with their bodies, negative body attitudes are, in fact, quite normal. Thus, by adolescence, many girls have already developed weight and body concerns and may even have engaged in attempts to alter or control their weight and body shape. Although a significant proportion of the previous research on disordered eating and body image dissatisfaction has focused on adult women and adolescent girls, an emerging line of research has begun to examine these constructs among pre-pubescent children as well (Cusumano and Thompson, 2001; Davison, Markey, Birch, 2003; Dohnt Tiggemann, 2004; Field et al., 1999a; Ricciardelli McCabe, 2001; Ricciardelli, McCabe, Banfield, 2000; VanderWal Thelen, 2000). And thus, while the role of pubertal development is certainly notable, it is also an incomplete picture of why and how self-objectification likely develops. Sexualization of Girls A complimentary perspective and emerging line of research particularly relevant to the potential causes and outcomes of self-objectification concerns that of the sexualization of girls. According to the Report of the American Psychological Association Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls (2007), sexualization is used to describe the treatment of others or oneself as sexual objects and, as things rather than as people with legitimate sexual feelings of their own. Sexualized individuals are valued primarily for their physical appearance and, more specifically, their sex appeal. The phenomenon of sexualization has been observed and commented upon by an ever widening array of academics and cultural critics, as well as the popular media. Emma Rush and Andrea La Nauze of The Australia Institute (2006b) have similarly defined sexualization as, the act of giving someone or something a sexual character, which, when applied to children includes inappropriately imposing or encouraging, ster eotypical forms of adult sexuality. In the book, The Lolita Effect, Gigi Durham (2008) commented at length on the complimentary social phenomenon of viewing and treating little girls as sexy as well as encouraging adult women to be sexy by adopting childlike habits and clothing trends (e.g., Mary Jane shoes, lollipops, school uniforms). While children have always been exposed to adult sexuality through popular culture and media, the very direct sexualization of children by media and society, is a considerably more recent development. According to Rush La Nauze (2006b), the term corporate paedophilia is a metaphor coined by Phillip Adams to describe the marketing strategy of age compression, where previously adult/adolescent products are aimed at younger and younger children in order to guarantee more consumers (Lamb and Brown, 2006; Levin and Kilbourne, 2008; Rush La Nauze, 2006a). Rush and La Nauze (2006b) operationally define this concept as advertising and marketing that either seek to present children in sexually suggestive ways, or seek to sell product to children using overt forms of adult sexuality. Despite the potential negative connotations, with 27 million children aged 7 to 14 years, the contemporary tween market is a rather lucrative demographic with tremendous discretionary purchasing power, including a subset of 2.7 million that, in 2001, spent more than $14 billion on clothing alone (Nieder and Figueroa, 2001). Although both girls and boys are exposed to adult sexuality through popular culture and media, the direct marketing of sexualized materials to children is notably directed toward young girls (Rush La Nauze, 2006b). A 1999 article in Entrepreneur magazine described how girls represent a better niche market than boys because, like their adult female counterparts, girls tend to purchase predictable economic stuff, including clothing, accessories, and beauty products (Phillipps, 1999). And, in 2007, NPD Group reported that 7- to 14-year-old girls spent $11.5 billion on apparel, up from $10.5 billion in 2004 (Sweeney, 2008). Taking notice, corporations like MGA Entert ainment, producer of the Bratz dolls, have licensed a line of Bratz clothing and accessories for little girls that include a matching hip-hugger underpants and padded bra set (Opplinger, 2008). Slim-fit t-shirts in stretchy fabrics are now sold in childrens sizes with slogans such as, So many boys, so little time and, Scratch and Sniff across the chest and Pollett and Hurwitz (2004) noted that thong underwear are now offered in tween stores as well as childrens wear departments, often with decorations that will specifically appeal to children. Retail stores such as Limited Too and Justice, which cater exclusively to the tween demographic sell lingerie items such as camisoles and lacy panties, items that once would have been marketed solely to adults (Lamb Brown, 2006). Likewise, the younger sister of Miley Cyrus (of Disney Channel fame) recently began marketing her own lingerie line for tweens. National chains such as Target and J.C. Penny are now selling padded bras and thong pant ies for young girls that feature cherries and slogans such as Wink-Wink and Eye Candy, while in 2008, Wal-Mart offered a pair of thong underwear in childrens sizes emblazoned with the phrase, Who needs a credit card? Not to be left out, pink baby bibs sold at that same chain bore such phrases as, Always Dress to Impress, Kisses 25Â ¢, and Drama Queen. The cosmetics industry has also seen the value of marketing their products to younger and younger girls. In 2001, a survey by the NPD Group showed that, on average, women began using beauty products at 17. Today, the average is 13, and even this is likely to be an overstatement. According to the same report, 8- to 12-year-olds were already spending more than $40 million a month on beauty products. In 2003, according to Experian, a market research company based in New York, 43% of 6- to 9-year-olds were already using lipstick or lip gloss; 38% used hairstyling products; and 12% used other cosmetics. In a study last year, 55% of 6- to 9-year-old girls said they used lip gloss or lipstick and nearly two-thirds said they used nail polish. From 2007 to 2009, the percentage of girls ages 8- to 12-years-old, who regularly use mascara and eyeliner nearly doubled to 18% from 10% for mascara, and to 15% from 9% for eyeliner. The percentage of girls using lipstick also rose, to 15% from 10% (Qu enqua, 2010). Of serious concern within the medical community is research that suggests some of these products may have highly negative consequences from prolonged usage, particularly for children and pre-pubertal adolescents. While race, obesity, and genetics are likely determinants of pubertal timing, a growing body of research suggests that hormonally active environmental agents may also alter the course of pubertal development in girls, which is controlled by endogenous steroids and gonadotropins (Jacobson-Dickman Lee, 2009; Rasier et al., 2006). Some of these chemicals include a number of phenols and phthalates, such as Bisphenol A (BPA), which act like estradiol as hormone agonists and, in animals, have been shown to accelerate pubertal development (Rasier et al., 2006). In the previously described study examining early onset puberty among 7- to 8-year-old girls, Wolff and colleagues (2010) discovered elevated exposure to endocrine disruptors that are commonly found in nail polishes and oth er cosmetics. Toy shops now sell items such as the Girls Ultimate Spa and Perfume Kit (for use by up to eight kids and perfect for spa parties, sleepovers, and rainy days); the Body Shop has lip glosses intended for teens and fruity lip glosses for preteens; Claires, an accessory store in almost every shopping mall, offers lip gloss in flavors that appeal primarily to young girls (e.g., Dr Pepper, Skittles). Mattel Corporation, producer of Barbie dolls, offers lip glosses and perfumes to their junior consumers with names such as, Free Spirit, Summer Fun, and Super Model (Opplinger, 2008). Similarly, large spa chains and salons now offer a variety of services for children, including several companies devoted to providing services to child customers exclusively. Sweet Sassy salons and Dashing Diva franchises advertise services for girls 5- to 11-years-old and offer options such as virgin Cosmos in martini glasses and pink limos as part of birthday parties for groups of girls. Similarly, at any of t he 90 mall-based, Club Libby Lu stores nationwide, girls can mix their own lip gloss and partake in celebrity makeovers and mini fashion shoots (one of the most popular being Hannah Montana) (Sweeney, 2008). Products and services such as these highlight just how mainstream it has become to turn children into cute and sexy little objects. And, although adults and much of society have become somewhat desensitized to this sexualization of girls, children remain especially vulnerable to marketers efforts because of the very way they think. Under the age of eight, children have trouble understanding that the purpose of an ad is to get them to buy something and if they see a child smiling and looking happy, they are unlikely realize its because the child is being paid to look that way. Young children tend to believe what they see, so that when other children are presented as both sexualized and happy, they believe it will be that way for them too (Oates, Blades, Gunter, 2002; Singer Revenson, 1996). Young childrens thinking tends to focus on one thing at a time and only on what they can see. They dont consider multiple aspects of a situation or the relationships between those aspects and they tend not to look at what lies beneath the surface of objects, images, and actions such as the motives, intentions, and feelings underlying sexual behavior Singer Revenson, 1996). In other words, children are already predisposed to attend to appearance and this is particularly damaging and problematic to children and adolescents who are developing their sense of themselves as sexual beings (APA, 2007). Ultimately, girls are encouraged to construct a sexy appearance, yet it is highly unlikely they personally understand what it means to be sexual or to have sexual desires (APA, 2007). Strasburger and Wilson (2002) argued that preadolescents and adolescents are like actors who experiment with different features of their newly forming identities; a plasticity which may make them especially sus ceptible to media and cultural messages linking social popularity and acceptance with various sexualized products and services. Given the tendency for adult women to internalize and actively pursue these social ideals despite greater cognitive resources and media/marketing literacy, it is likely that young girls would also start to adopt an observers view of their bodies and an increased focus on appearance over time and particularly with increased interaction with and consumption of culture that promotes this ideal. Quite simply, between padded bras, adult fashions in youth sizes, make-up and accessories, girls are no longer living in a world where puberty is the true beginning of their sexual objectification by others. Thus, it stands to reason that given enough exposure to this appearance culture, some girls may internalize these values at early ages than previously theorized. Body Image and Concerns in Childhood Although the work is limited, as compared to studies with adults, body image research with children suggests that children as young as 3-years-old may start to show an awareness and even mild endorsement of popular social attitudes about bodies, most notably anti-fat bias and a preference for thinness (Cramer Steinwert, 1998; Musher-Eizenman et al., 2003). However, while measurable, research with young children is generally interpreted with great caution due to their limited cognitive development and generally studies show support for greater awareness and endorsement of these beliefs and preferences beginning between the ages of 5- and 6-years-old (Cramer Steinwert, 1998; Davison, Markey Birch, 2000; Lowes Tiggemann, 2003; Musher-Eizenman et al., 2003; Thelan et al., 1992; Tiggemann Wilson-Barrett, 1998). Because research with children is generally limited by their language and reading skills, most studies on weight and body image have relied primarily on a variety of verbal preference and adjective attribution tasks using age and sex specific figure arrays (Collins, 1991; Hill, Oliver, Roger, 1992; Gardner, Sorter, Friedman, 1997; Musher-Eizenman et al., 2003; Stager Burke, 1982; Truby Paxton, 2002; Williamson Delin, 2001) while reserving surveys and questionnaires for older children (Flanneryschroeder Chrisler, 1996). Unfortunately, a thorough understanding of weight and body image concerns in children is also limited by the great variety in actual constructs being measured (e.g., anti-fat bias, preference for thinness, body dissatisfaction, weight concerns, dieting) as well as differences in the age ranges of the child participants (Smolak, 2004). Despite these limitations, results from several studies suggest that childrens reports of weight and body concerns range between 3 7% and 50% for girls aged 8- to 13-years-old (Collins, 1991; Field et al., 1999a; Rolland, Farnill, Griffiths, 1997; Schur, Sanders, Steiner, 2000; Schreiber et al., 1996) and a 1998 review by Smolak, Levine, and Schermer (1998) found that an average of 40% of girls in late elementary school reported weight and body image concerns. In addition to simply being present and measurable at these ages, weight and body image concerns also appear to be rather consistent and predictive over time. In a longitudinal study of 182 girls, Davison, Markey, and Birch (2003) found that girls were consistent with regard to their reported weight and body concerns from 5- to 9-years-old. Furthermore, even after statistically controlling for weight, girls who reported higher weight or body image concerns between the ages of 5- and 7-years-old also reported higher rates of dietary restriction, disordered eating attitudes, and dieting at age 9 (Davison, Markey, Birch, 2003). Research on the relationships between childrens weight and body image concerns to dieting mirrors patterns in similar studies with adults (Feldman, Feldman, Goodman, 1998; Flanneryschroeder Chrisler, 1996; Freedman, 1984; Gilbert, 1998; Wardle Marsland, 1990) as in adult women. Although dieting behaviors are more commonly reported by older children ranging from 8- to 13-years-old (Rolland, Farnill, Griffiths, 1996; Thelen et al., 1992), there is evidence to suggest elementary school children (grades 3 through 6) are not only knowledgeable about weight loss methods (Schur, Sanders, Steiner, 2000), but they may be reliable reporters of dieting behaviors as well (Kostanski Gullone, 1999). Thus, while weight and body image concerns are perhaps more obvious during adolescence (Striegel-Moore, Silberstein, Rodin, 1986), their origins are likely found in childhood, as by middle childhood, weight and body image concerns are already normative among girls. Contributing Factors An overwhelming number of studies with adolescents and adult women point to a variety of sociocultural factors, most notably family, peers, and media, as the primary source of influence in the development of poor body image and disordered eating (Stice, 1994, 2001, 2002; Stice Shaw, 1994; Thompson et al., 1999b; Thompson Stice, 2001; van den Berg et al., 2002). The basic premise of these models is quite consistent with both objectification theory and the construct of objectified body consciousness and addresses a number of relevant constructs from Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954) while ultimately focusing on internalization of the thin ideal. In general, these theories posit weight and body image concerns develop as a result of discrepancies between the actual and ideal self resulting from social comparisons and feedback from family, peers, and media. As the previously discussed sexualization material suggests, children are likely no less subject to societal pressures tha n adults and adolescent and sociocultural models have now been adapted to explain the development of childrens weight and body concerns (Ricciardelli et al., 2003; Smolak Levine, 2001). Mothers Given the pivotal role of families, more specifically mothers, in young childrens lives, it is perhaps not surprising that much of the sociocultural research on the development of weight and body concerns in childhood has focused on the potential role parents (e.g., Davison, Markey, Birch, 2000; Hill Pallin, 1998; Kluck 2010; Lowes Tiggemann, 2003; McCabe et al., 2007; Ricciardelli et al., 2003; Smolak, Levine, Schermer, 1999). Despite many changes in contemporary culture and across a wide variety of developmental theories, families consistently remain important social reinforcers and role models often credited with constructing and maintaining environments that influence childrens beliefs and behaviors, not only during childhood and adolescence but across the lifespan as well (Bandura McDonald, 1963; Killeya-Jones et al., 2007; Parke Buriel, 2008). With specific regard to self-objectification and objectified body consciousness, McKinley (1999) found significant positive correlations between mothers and their late adolescent daughters body surveillance, body esteem, BMI, and desired weight. Similarly, in a cross cultural study of objectified body consciousness, Crawford and colleagues (2009) found that body shame in mothers was related to body shame in adult daughters for a Nepali sample. With regard to related body image and dietary constructs, numerous studies have identified similarities between mothers and daughters body image concerns and disordered eating patterns (Evans le Grange, 1995; Hill Franklin, 1998; Hill, Weaver, Blundell, 1990; Kichler Crowther, 2001; Rieves Cash, 1996; Sanftner et al., 1996; Smolak, Levine, Schermer, 1999). One way researchers have suggested that a mothers physical appearance orientation can negatively influence daughters is through modeling of behaviors such as dieting or disordered eating (e.g., Keel, Heatherton, Harnden, Hornig, 1997; Kichler Crowther, 2001; Pike, 1995; Pike and Rodin, 1991). Although much of this research has focused on adolescents, similar results emerge in studies of younger children (e.g., Abramovity Birch, 2000; Stice, Agras, Hammer, 1999 Williamson Delin, 2001). Interestingly, in a sample of 5- to 10-year old girls, Williamson and Delin (2001) found it was mothers weight concerns rather than the childs actual weight that predicted childrens weight concerns. Similarly, Abramovity and Birch (2000) found a sample of 5-year-old girls were twice as likely to report ideas about dieting if their mothers were dieting. Yet another way researcher have suggested that a mothers appearance orientation can negatively influence daughters body image and eating behaviors in a more direct manner through verbal comments, which range in form from criticism (Hahn-Smith and Smith, 2001; Smolak, Levine, Schermer, 1999) to teasing and fat talk (Nichter, 2000; Schwartz et al., 1999), and even encouraging to diet (Benedikt, Wertheim, Love, 1998); phenomena which appear to increase as girls approach adolescence (Striegel-Moore Kearney-Cooke, 1994; Thelen Cormier, 1995). However, while most studies have found strong positive relationships between daughters and their mothers self-reports of weight and body image concerns among late adolescents and adults, several notably inconsistent exceptions exist, particularly in studies of younger girls. In the previously mentioned cross cultural study (Crawford et al., 2009), none of the objectified body consciousness measures correlated between mothers and their late adoles cent daughters in the US sample, and in the previously mentioned McKinley (1999) study, there were no relationships between mothers and daughters scores for body shame or control beliefs. Likewise, Lindberg, Hyde, and McKinley (2006) did not find any positive associations between mothers and their 10 to 12-year-old daughters objectified body consciousness measures, and in fact, found small negative correlations between mothers and daughters surveillanc

Criminal Justice System- War on Drugs

Criminal Justice System- War on Drugs Introduction This paper will tackle the issue of the criminal justice system in relation to the social justice system on the issue of war on drugs as started by Richard Nixon in 1972 and will look at the effects of certain policies, the loopholes being exploited and several views from people about the way the criminal justice system tackles the issue of drugs. The paper will focus on the contemporary issues that are related to the criminal justice and social justice systems. First, this paper will review the facts as they stand and as they were presented earlier. It has been noted that there are about 500,000 drug related incarcerations in the US. In 1999, it was noted that 1.532 million Drug related arrests were made and this was equivalent to 10.9% of all arrests in that year. According to findings, the prison population in the US is the largest in the world with drug related convictions forming a substantial part of these at 25% in 1998 are also noted for 1999. These have led to the correctional facilities being filled up by drug offenders. The treatments that are accorded for the incarcerated offenders and the methods like medication using drugs like methadone being described are then discussed. The discussion will also include alternative treatments. These treatments include the use of cognitive behavioral therapy, counseling, educational enhancement programs for juveniles and vocational training. Lehigh (1993) reveals that the cost of these treatments and their outcomes are then analyzed with treatment for a single case being put at about USD 2,940 while the benefit to society due to this treatment in reduced crime and incarceration costs being put at USD 9,170 in the period 1993 to 1995. The outcomes of these treatments showed a positive effect since the tax payer saved 3dollars for every dollar spent on treatment and also because the individuals who underwent the treatment showed reduced chances of going back to drug engagement as opposed to those who did not go through the treatment. Incarceration alternatives are then discussed at with options such as treatment of the offenders in hospital-like facilities instead of prison sentences being mooted. The next issue to be discussed is the widely growing clamor for the legalization of marijuana. Notable developments including the more relaxed approach to criminal prosecution of drug offenses and preference of treatment alternatives by the new administration, the increasing attention given to pro marijuana organizations by the media, the seemingly apathetic enforcement of marijuana laws by some police force and the new positions being taken at the United Nations will be discussed in detail.  Their effects on the growing clamor for drug legalization are analyzed as the section concludes by airing the views of those who want things to remain as they are. Pursuant to this the year 2000 Proposition 36 of California is discussed with regards to its attempts to lessen the penalties for non-violent possession or use of drug s (Cassese, p.65). The concentration of law enforcement agencies in the pursuit of individual users as opposed to the large gangs and cartels that produce and distribute these drugs is then tackled. The links of the Mexican cartels and the Salvadorian MS-13 gang that has a strong presence in the US at 20,000 buoyed by the post 9/11 concentration on terrorism by the law enforcement agencies is looked at. Descriptions of their links and the threats that they pose other than their distribution of drugs in the US are also noted. Other gangs like the bulldogs and F-13 are then discussed. To end the paper an analysis of the perceived racial bias that the war against drugs has taken with the implementation of the criminal justice system being regarded as biased towards the incarceration of minorities in the African American, Latino and Native American populations. Cases are cited like the prevalence of drug related busts in these populations neighborhood and the increased likelihood of black persons being arrested of drugs use being incarcerated. The issue of different punishment under the law for use of crack cocaine and powder cocaine is also discussed as being racially discriminative of the African American population. An Examination of the Law Enforcement Issues Law enforcement in the United States has become synonymous with various factors coming into play. Generally, under the laws of the US, it is a crime to possess, use, distribution and/or manufacturing of drugs like marijuana, opium and cocaine since they are considered illegal. Investigations on the various ways of curbing drug abuse among the youth have been carried out by the law enforcement agencies through the police. For instance, in the New York schools, random testing to establish the students who use these drugs has been introduced so as to assist in rehabilitating the students. The US has about 5 percent of the world’s population but 25 percent of the prison population in the world; these are about 3 million and on parole there are 5 million. Out of this number the people who were held for drug related offences were 500,000 in 2008(Webster, 2009). In 2001, The Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) released a fact sheet on the state of the criminal justice system’s pursuit and addressing of drug related offenses. According to the sheet, 21percent of incarcerations at federal facilities in the US were drug related while those being locally supervised were reported at 26 percent in 1998. The fact sheet estimated that an average of 71% of the persons incarcerated in the countries jails had abused drugs at some time while the average for the entire population of the USA was estimated to make up 40%. A statement in the sheet quoted the FBI as having made up to 1.532 million arrests that were drug related making up 10.9 percent of all the arrests made in 1999. The numbers of incarcerations cut across the sexes with males being dominant at 7000 shy of a million and females were recorded to be more than 80,000 in 1997. Females in state prisons were found to have been most likely under the drugs influence when they committed the offences. The use of the drugs was estimated to have been 4 weeks leading to their offense; these statistics were reversed for the sexes in federal prisons. The cost of maintaining the prisoners was for both sexes were found to be equal. The sheet revealed that the amount of money spent on incarceration of individuals with charge that were related to drug offenses in 1996 was USD 30 billion. Application and Operation of the Criminal Justice System The criminal justice system in the United States is largely guided by the United States Constitution. For instance, the anti-drug abuse treatment is provided in accordance to the Violent Crime Control and Law enforcement Act (p.7) by the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) to the prisoners that were eligible before their release time. This treatment is provided through transitional programs that were both residential and also non-residential. This treatment aims at reducing the expenses that are incurred by the society as a result of crimes that were drug related. It also ensures that the drug victim goes back to productive life in the society free of desires to use illegal drugs. Inmates in relation to drug abuse as a criminal offence and how it is dealt with; Who are just about to be freed and are living in halfway houses are offered transitional services. These services include counseling and support services. The inmates in the detoxification program are isolated from the general population and are put in treatment units specially designed for detoxification. The non-residential section has programs that are not limited to a single place but move around to the perceived areas that need education and counseling on drug related issues. Fields (p.12) insinuates that it was estimated that 77.5 percent of the inmates in correctional facilities required treatment for substances abuse. In reality, fewer than 11 percent out of the 77.5 percent were actually getting the treatment in 1997 with 30 percent receiving treatment in facilities that are specially designed. Almost 2 percent of them were in hospitals while the others were being treated while in general facilities for all inmates regardless of crime. There are many modalities covering areas such as cognitive behavioral therapies and drug based medication. One of them is pharmacological maintenance whereby the participants are subjected to medication that acted in place of the desired drug. This gradually eliminates the need felt by the inmate or it blocks the drugs effects on an individual. Levo-alpha-acetymethadol a long-acting opioid maintenance compound was also used to surpass the requirement for daily clinic visits for those using methadone. The specific drugs that were in use in 1999 were Buprenrphinand narcotic analgesic. Buprenrphinand was used to antagonize opioids like Heroin in the bloodstream, Naltrexone also opioid antagonistic inhibits the effects attributed to opioids that reduced an individual’s need for the use of the drugs and Methadone. The narcotic analgesic was used in the place of opiate derivatives such as morphine and codeine. It was also reported that inmates were attending outpatient treatments and psychotherapies that were held formally with professional counselors informally held with peers. These sessions included the use of cognitive behavioral therapies that aimed at changing the reasoning of the individual as to what drove them to the abuse of the substance. Vocational therapy and peer group support structure like those made famous by the Alcoholics Anonymous were used during the sessions. Acupuncture was also mooted as an alternative used in conjunction with counseling to aid in decreasing the physical desire for drugs and the symptoms that are contributed to the denial of accessing the drugs. Other means that were in use to aide abusers were the Multimodality programs. These offered a combined treatment regime that incorporated treatments such as methadone medications, family and psychotherapy. This therapy was combined with education enhancement which was for inmates that were of school-going-age, stress management and vocational training techniques. An aftercare program was and still is in use with all the described counseling methods being used over a twelve step sessions /meetings o prevent the inmates from relapsing on their abusive ways an. Recovery training and additional vocational training is also done to help in the full recovery of these individuals. Webb (p.4) states that there are insufficient programs to promote the well being and support offenders who have recovered and are trying to fit back into society.  Still there are people who feel that the correctional system is not doing enough to treat these inmates. They cited the addictive properties of some of the treatments as replacing one master for another. This fact led to the Office of National Drug control Policy Reauthorization act of 2006 which was aimed at overcoming the addiction tendencies developed by the patients who were treated using Opioid analgesic drugs. Drug abuse related crime investigation techniques are many. The laboratory method may be employed in most advanced cases. This is where evidence is collected and put in preservation bags for court presentation when bringing up the case. The presented evidence is then transported to the central database centre where it is kept safely. The most ardent technique is the one that involves the use of detectives who basically investigate the alleged crime committed. The costs and outcomes of treatment According to the National Treatment Improvement Evaluation Study of the Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, the mean cost per episode of treatment of substance abuse inmates between 1993 and 1995 was reportedly said to be USD 2,940. The mean gain to society was estimated at USD 9,170 per treated individual this save the society an impressive three dollars for every one dollar spent (Fields, p.17). This was considered a success. The profit was realized from the fact the costs that were footed by society for the purpose of treating and compensating drug related crime damages were greatly reduced since these individuals were made more productive to society. The BOP survey of inmates that were fully treated and released before 1996 revealed the success program. The BOP survey showed that there was a low probability of the individuals who went through the treatment to rearrest in the first half-year of their release. There was 3.3 percent possibility or rearrested in comparison 12 percent possibility for the individuals who were released without undergoing through the treatment. In the post-release period 20 percent of those that had received treatment were reported to use drugs while in the same period, 36 percent of those that didn’t seek treatment while incarcerated. Relating Social Justice to Criminal Justice Basically social justice describes a form of justice system whereby justice is assured in all aspects of the community. An example of social justice is whereby the society as a whole works together in to stop the penetration of drugs in the community by curbing and ending drug use among the youth. Social justice requires high commitment from the community and their good will to be socially responsible. This because according to critics, the criminal elements are well known to the community and therefore it would be easier to identify and eliminate these criminals. Criminal justice describes a justice system where justice achievement is based on law enforcement agencies which use their policies in reinforcing law and order within the community setup. From as early as 1993, there have been widespread complaints about the criminal justice system. It was complained that the system, in its war against drugs, took in many prisoners who were termed as petty dealers and passive abusers and this left the system in a crisis. These allegations were backed by the American Bar Association. At the floor of the US senate, these sentiments were backed up by Virginia senator Jim Webb who accused the system of going dramatically wrong by quote ‘swamping the prison system with drug offenders’. Treatment has been viewed as one of the most efficient alternatives to incarceration and the persuasive abilities of the criminal justice system to get offenders into treatment and to have them follow the regimes efficiently, with little degradation of the peace of communities was seen with the creation of Treatment Accountability for Safer Communities (TASC) program in the 70’s. The communities were required to provide the requisite treatment under the criminal justice system prescription while TASC role was to monitor the program as it progressed. This was done to ensure the offender was making progress in their treatment as well as comply with the criminal system prescription. Criminal Justice and Social Justice in relation to Incarceration The criminal justice system and the social justice system handle incarceration in different ways. In the social justice system, incarceration is carried out in accordance to the social setting to the community. The criminal justice system handles incarceration according to the procedure that has been laid down in the Constitution of the state which is supreme. The correlation between these to systems will be closely examined in this paper. Examples from drug related cases will be used. The attitudes towards the use of illegal drug which is a common activity all over the US have been seen to change over the last months. Reportedly, there are at least 30 groups that are pushing for the legalization of the use of marijuana including Marijuana Policy Project whose members have reported increased attention from mainstream media that wanted to discuss the issue. Open discussion on the issue of  lifting the ban with the aim of reducing the growing numbers of inmates held in custody for drug relate crimes such as possession and abuse of marijuana are being carried out. Subsequently, the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws reported the presence of thirty-six different marijuana legalization bills that were pending in 24 states in mid-march 2009. This shifting attitude is being attributed to the baby-boom generation that used this drug heavily in the 60’s and are now controlling the instruments of power. Opinion polls carried out in California also show a slim majority of respondents, 54 percent were in support of the legalization. Proponents of legalization argue that this will alter the current problem that is attributed to law and order due to the violence that is occurring from the Mexican suppliers of most of this drug to a problem of public health since the regulators will be analyzing and setting quality standards. They also attach the huge monetary benefits that will accrue due to the reduction of spending on enforcement of bans and the amounts that will come in due to the tax that will be gained from the legalizatio n of the trade. In addition, the findings of the Nixon initiated and rejected 1972 Shafer report that found that the users of and marijuana itself bore no significant harm to the public and recommended the withdrawal of penalties given to the individual users and also small-scale distributors. Further support for this crusade comes from the unlikely quarters of the UN World Drug Report of 2009 that argued the legalization case. The report lauds much praise on the Portuguese decriminalization policy that not long ago was castigated for encouraging the drugs proliferation. The report roots for the non-custodial detention of drug offenders who are not perceived to be dangerous. The report argues that it is of no benefit to confine people caught with drugs and they should be directed to options for treatment options since the package is already confiscated. Perhaps the biggest support to this issue has come from the moderate stance that is being taken by Gil Kerlikowske the new head of the White house’s ONDCP. His comments suggest that the new administration will deal with the drugs issue as more of a health issue as opposed to a criminal issue and gave credence to treatment instead of incarceration. The Seattle police have also openly admitted that their enforcement of marijuana related laws has been lax preferring to deal with other serious crimes (Fields, p.21). As always there have been dissenting voices that propose sticking with the current situation they have termed the changing perceptions as hogwash saying that drug offenders do not just need treatment but they should also be punished for breaking the law. Moreover, the executive director of the Fraternal Order of Police James Pasco adds that offenders should be shown the repercussions of breaking the laws. They see the drive to legalize marijuana as start in the debate for the all drugs legalization. This observation is quite true as many of the pro-legalization organizations attest to this fact openly. Those against legalization view legalization as the opening of the floodgates to careless use and putting the non-using population in danger. They would have preferred footing the increasing cost of enforcement than see them repealed. These views are increasingly being marginalized especially in public debate as the more vocal advocators of legalization spread the message. At the senate, one senator voted against Mr. Kerlikowske’s suggestions, Senator Tom Cobum of Oklahoma was concerned with the developing permissive attitude in the country with regard to anti-marijuana law enforcement. California’s proposition 36 In California 30% of the inmates are being held for drug related offenses that involved simple possession and use charges and very few being arrested for distribution of drugs. This fact has led to the believe that the punishment Due to this many believe that the punishment measured out at the drug criminals is not equivalent to nature of their crimes. In 2000 a there was a proposition for the deferment of sentencing from the prisons to facilities for treatment after the conviction of an offender. This proposition proposed that the offenders should be sentenced to probation if and only they had gone through the drug treatment program and completed it. It also advocated for offenders convicted with misdemeanors crimes like violence to be ineligible for these provisions. The chance to choose whether or not to participate in these programs were given to offenders after they were convicted and the repercussions of their convictions were made clarified to them. One of the cases where the offender was allowed to choose and decide whether to go into treatment or proceed with punishment and pay the fine was the case of the diminutive fine of USD100 proscribed for the possession of marijuana. Participation of offenders in the program was a probationary term. There were no specification on how the offenders were to be treated; it was the judge who defined it during the hearing of the case. So this was basically done on case by case basis. The procedures for ensuring quality healing were not specified in the proposition but there was a twelve months maximum period of treatment but the minimum period was not given. Probation officers were to monitor the progress of the participants with regard to the treatment and to accordingly advice the court. At the time, the data on the California probationers did not assist the cause for this law, this is because the data revealed that up to a third of the probationers were rearrested 12 months into their probation and this cast doubt on the treatments’ effectiveness. Another observation was  that the law would have shifted the treatment burden to public institutions with more treatment of synthetic drugs in the future being seen as compared to Heroin which was the leading drug being treated at that time. It was also found that the system that existed then was not sufficient enough for handling the expected large numbers. Previous experience with implementation of legislation in California like the three strikes law also worked to the deflation of confidence in this proposition with analysts believing that the implementation would be varying from the court house and location. The number of plea bargains was also projected to increase with the implementation and the fear that a good number of the offenders sent to community-based treatment will not adhere to the treatment plan (Brownlie, p.74). Differences were expected in the implementation of the law where definitions were not as clear and the implementation of this law was linked with an increase with possession-for –sale charges thus creating a newer problem. War on drugs: gangs and cartels It has been noted that the drug war, instead of focusing on the drug cartels and gangs that distribute the drugs and met violence on the population at an approximated 1million people, it focused on the individual non-violent offenders suffering from addiction or mental illness (Webb, p.27). The ABA panel back in 1993 warned that the sharp rise in incarceration of harmless low level drug offenders was depleting the resources that were needed to combat more serious often violent crime (Lehigh, p.3). As the criminal justice system turns the heat on the individual users the gangs are prospering given the major support they receive from Mexican drug cartels. There are many gangs in America, and they have nationwide reach. According to Webster (p.9) American gangs are doing brisk business for Mexican drug cartels that supply them with drugs which they then sell down the drug sale chain to smaller gangs and drug addicts. These small gangs collect money for the cartels and the other hand; the cartels enforce punishments that are to be meted to any individual who crosses their path or defaults in their dealings. Mara Salvatrucha MS-13 mafia is one of these gangs whose’ leaders are being incarcerated in some state prisons like California. This gang was founded by Salvadorians in the 80’s in Los Angeles. It is involved in the smuggling of drugs and people across the border, and accused of raping and assaulting many immigrants. This gang has a trademark of leaving a dismembered corpse with a decapitated head in crime scenes; their involvement in crime is not restricted to drugs as they willingly involve themselves in crimes that they feel are good for their reputation. The FBI has reacted by creating a joint task force with the DEA and ICE aimed at countering the MS-13. The Columbian Cali cartel is another cartel though not as powerful. Both of these cartels have adopted international corporation management style. They have multilevel management starting from the cocaine production sites in South America’s Columbia and Venezuela among other countries up to the highly networked Mexican cartels with valuable smuggling routes to the US and they also have well established networks for distribution within the US. Another network is the opium trade that starts in Afghanistan finds its way to Mexico and then returns to America. These drugs are brought to Mexico by gangs from former soviet states who usually buy them from Afghanistan. The high profits obtained from the sale of these drugs are responsible for their continuity. For instance, processed cocaine goes for about USD 1500/kg in Columbia while in the streets of US, it sells for about USD 66,000/ kg representing a 4300% profit margin making it worth the risk that is involved (Tierney, p.44). This drug money is said to have become an integral part of the Mexican economy with vast regions involving themselves in the planting of marijuana and poppy for opium. The MS-13 is suspected to be in plans to smuggle terrorists into the US after it was seen meeting members of Al-Qaeda in Honduras. Another gang the F-13 had its members arrested and in the Los-Angeles area after shootouts with the African-American gangs trying to capture their drug distribution networks (Lehigh, p.34). These statistics show where the criminal justice system should lay its emphasis on, that is stopping the drugs from entering into the US. These facts also paint a deem picture about the call for legalization of drugs as this would be tantamount to supporting these criminal organizations and giving them funds to continue their reign of terror on the American public and the citizens of the countries that the members  come from. Impact of Drug Policies on the Criminal Justice System Jensen, Gerber and Mosher (p.6) suggest that criminologists have realized that the criminal justice system has been fundamentally changed in direct response to the current war on drug. Since the beginning of the war on drugs, the number of prisoners incarcerated for drug crimes has increased.  The criminal justice system has been forced to quickly make sweeping changes in policy to ensure the requirements of the war on drugs are met.   Furthermore, prisons that were already overcrowded have been stretched to the limits of their capacities and more so that the construction of new prisons soon became necessary.  This rapid influx of prisoners did not allow criminal justice professionals adequate time to research whether alternative measures to incarceration such as treatment or rehabilitation for less serious offenses would be more effective than simply imprisoning every individual convicted of a drug crime regardless of extenuating circumstances. A proactive approach to prevent drug crimes from occurring in the first place would serve society far better than the current system of reactively arresting, convicting and imprisoning people, then dealing with the myriad societal problems created by the criminal justice process. Imprisoning large numbers of people for long periods of time without regard for the seriousness of the crime they have committed and the subsequent long term effects of that incarceration, is neither beneficial to society nor is it fair to the criminal justice system. The criminal justice system lacks sufficient resources to handle the increasing number of drug prisoners who are constantly jailed without any feasible option being present on the ground at the time of their conviction. It is indeed evident that according to Jensen, Gerber and Mosher (p.24) building more prisons would not be a prudent step to take. Authorities must therefore put their heads together in ensuring that they achieve this in the nearest time possible as the criminal justice system is choking from a host of problems. The solution therefore seems to lie in conducting a thorough research in order to determine the potential punishments that could be employed without restraining the criminal justice system. Capstone Model: Modern Criminal and Social Justice Issue The fight against drug related crime is one of the most modern issues in the social are as well as the criminal area. This is more so true in relation to race. The relationship between drug use and race a modern dilemma that is facing the law enforcement agencies on a daily basis. This capstone model is aimed at establishing this relationship. The American Bar association from as early as the late 80’s, had noted drug related arrest rates for minorities were far much greater than those of the majority. There has been a definite connection observed between racial biases and the way the war on drugs has been carried out. It is argued that Native Americans, blacks and Latinos have borne the brunt of the war against drugs with a disproportionate number of these communities being incarcerated as compared to white majority (drug policy alliance, p.1). The alliance claims that racial profiling has dominated the investigation and prosecution of drug related crime with the police holding street drug bust operations in low income areas that are dominated by black and Latinos. In fact, members of minorities who are users of psychoactive drugs have in greater proportions been arrested and punished through prosecution in the criminal justice system instead of being taken to health care institutions to be medicated and reformed There is an argument that the courts charging system is racially biased, sentencing is marred with discrimination and that those in charge of guarding the system from issues like discrimination are not doing their work. In a report by human rights watch it is quoted that the black community represents 74% of  the people sent to prison for drug-related offences even though they make up 13% of the drug users population (Belenko, p.17). In comparison to white people, the blacks and Latinos have a13 times more likelihood of being incarcerated in prisons. Latinos and Native Americans are also not spared with the former being 50% of the entire marijuana-related arrests and the latter forming approximately 66% of those being prosecuted for these offenses at Federal level (Maxfield and Babbie, p.31). It was claimed that the war on drugs as carried out has encouraged the construction of prisons in rural US ostensibly to accommodate the swelling numbers of the minor population being arrested offenses that are drug related. Much cynicism is also attached to the treatment of minorities with many in the criminal justice system falsely believing that most crimes are attributable to minorities and that most minorities are involve in crime. The alliance also claims that much more attention is given to minority neighborhoods and therefore more arrests and convictions of the minorities. Consequently, a large number of these communities will be incarcerated; the skewed opinion is thus perpetuated (Drug Policy Alliance, p.2). The introduction of treatment and education programs, common in the white middle class communities, in the low-income minority neighborhoods was suggested as alternative instead of constructing more prisons

Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Issues - Response to the Far Right Concerning

A Response to the Far Right Concerning Gay Marriage Mr. Far Right has claimed that neither the Constitution nor the Bill of Rights mentions the right of homosexual couples to marry. I think that it would be safe to say that a homosexual couple who wishes to marry is seeking their own definition of happiness. Did Mr. Far Right conveniently skip over the part about "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" that is the very spirit of both these documents? "Mankind are greater gainers by suffering each other to live as seems good to themselves than by compelling each to live as seems good to the rest" --On Liberty, John Stuart Mill Next, Mr. Far Right states that homosexuality is an "abomination" to the Lord. Ah, I see. Now he is making moral judgements about homosexuality based upon a theology that not everyone agrees with. Is this a private game, or can anyone play? To illustrate my next point, allow me to relate a story I one read, "The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas" by Ursula Le Guin. Behold the fair city of Omelas. In this shining city the people are happy. And why shouldn't they be? The children are beautiful, the food plenty, and crime is nonexistent. Nothing is unhappy in Omelas, well, almost. Locked in the small earthen basement of one of the largest houses in the city is a small child. This child is the source of all the splendor of the city. It is the sacrifice of this child's tortured existence by the city that makes its happiness and beauty possible. This boy is not a secret, however. In fact, every citizen of the city has to view and acknowledge the child for the city to retain is idyllic state. Most people view the boy and, after a brief pang of ... ... environments. It seems to me that there isn't a single good argument in Mr. Far Right' entire article against gay marriage. Mr. Far Right’s statements bring painfully to light the kind of ignorance that is rampant in our society. To quote Albert Einstein "Only two things are infinite; the universe and human stupidity, and I am not sure about the former." Although a ruling concerning gay marriage would have no affect on me directly, it deeply concerns me as to the kind of society that might be a result of a negative ruling. Once the rights of one group of people are restricted, what's to stop the restriction of another group’s rights? "Whatever crushes individuality is despotism, by whatever name it may be called and whether it professes to be enforcing the will of God or the injunctions of men." --On Liberty, John Stuart Mill

Authenticity of The Great Santini :: essays research papers

Comparison Between Movie and History   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After watching the movie from Hollywood and reading the actual thoughts of Pat Conroy of whom the story is based on, there is significant evidence supporting the basis that â€Å"The Great Santini† was made on and Hollywood very accurately filmed â€Å"The Great Santini†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It isn’t to say that all military veterans were abusive and hard on their families. However, men in the military return from the service and seem to take a great sense of pride in their families and America. To this day some people are the same way as Bull Meechum. There are many similarities between Bull Meechum and Donald Conroy. For instance, they both lived life in the fast lane and to its full extent. In the movie, Bull Meechum mentions how fast and free it feels to fly. Donald Conroy also felt the same way as he flew over the American troops and proceeded to bomb the Koreans. They were both alike in the aspect that they lived for an adrenaline rush. Meechum and Conroy both loved life and lived it to its greatest.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The two men also were excellent soldiers. Donald Conroy was said to at one time, been the most decorated man in the military. Bull Meechum moved his family to South Carolina in order to take a position in training other pilots. Although neither were great family men, both soldiers had been trained in the art of killing other people as quickly and as many as they could.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another similarity that Donald Conroy had with Bull Meechum was the way he pushed his family to be better and tougher. In his eulogy, it states that if Donald Conroy would have seen the tears that his family cried at his death, he would have yelled at them and been embarrassed of the fact that his boys were behaving like girls. They both wanted the best for their family.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Since the movie is based on a true story, there aren’t very many parts that happen in the movie that never happened. The movie is extremely accurate in its portrayal of the military emotionally hardened father.

Special Children’s Necessities and Managements

The term, sprecial-needs children is defined as children whose developmental and/or behavior requires help or intervention beyond the scope of the ordinary classroom or adult interactions. About 15 to 20 percent of all children in the United States will exhibit some form of atypicall development and need special services (Bee, 1995). These children include children with learning disabilities (LD), Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Down Syndrome children, physically and mentally disabled children and gifted children. Children with learning disabilities may have poor memory skills, trouble following directions, eye-hand cordination problems and trouble with distinguishing between letters, numbers and sounds. There is no scientific explanation why children have learning disabilities, but some experts believe the cause may be due to slight brain damage. ADHD affects up to 5 percent of children up to the age of 18(Walls, 1994. When hyperactivity components are not present, it is diagnosed as Attention Deficit Disorder, or ADD. Children with ADHD are prone to restlessness, anxiety, short attention spans and impulsiveness. They have trouble listening, remaining seated, interacting with other people and are easily distracted. A child with ADHD will show extreme symptoms, usually before the age of 7. The most common medication for children with ADHD is an amphetamine called Ritalin, which produces a paradoxical effect. The speed stimulates the cerebral cortex, allowing the brain to manage incoming sensory information efficently. Ritalin is very controversial since the side effects can be quite serious, such as inhibiting growth. Down Syndrome is one of the most common and easily determined forms of mental retardiation. It affects 1 in 100 births among women under the age of 35 and 5 per 100 of woman over 40. Down Syndrome, formerly called mongolism, is caused by a chromosal abnomality. The affected individual has 47 chromosomes in all body cells instead of the normal 46. There is no treatment for Down Syndrome, but better medical care, which has resulted in an almost normal life span compared to the previous life expectancy of 14 years. A disabled child is a child with physical, mental or sensory impairment that makes performing everyday tasks more difficult. In the early 1980's, it was estimated that 9 to 10 percent of the United States population was diabled in some way. Until the second half of the 20th century, it was rare to find simple recognition that aside from the specific diability, disabled children have the same needs, interest and abilities as mainstream children. In schooling, the federal law now gurantees a free fit education to all handicapped children, regardless of the severity of their handicap. Gifted children are children who have unusually high intelligence. They generally have long attention spans, learn quickly, good memories and have a wider range of vocabulary thatn their peers. Gifted children usually tend to be bored with activities based for children their own age. Children who score between 130-150 on the standard IQ tests have traditionally been classified as gifted. These children come from all social, economic and ethnic backgrounds. There are many concerns that the majority of these children are being overlooked, since a lot of them are not given the same opportunities, attention and support as the child who is raised in the â€Å"All-American Family†.

Athabasca Assignment

Assignment 1: Using a Database for Strategic Business Development Assignment 1 is worth 5 percent of your final grade for this course. Answer all questions in the Hands-on MIS project â€Å"Improving Decision Making: Using a Database to Clarify Business Strategy† on pages 92–93 of the textbook. Read the assignment instructions in the textbook carefully and follow all instructions. Background: Relational databases are not new technology. Commercially, they gained importance in the early 1980s with the introduction of Oracle’s relational database, and since then they have been an essential tool for most businesses.Databases are critical tools that help to support various business functions in an organization. These information systems help a business to build and maintain competitive advantage. Databases not only support the operational levels of business—they are also used to support the activities of managers. For this assignment, you will be analyzing the data in a simple, one-table database by creating queries and reports in Microsoft Access. The system you are â€Å"developing† will be used by The Queen’s Inn in St. John’s, Newfoundland for strategic business development purposes.Remember that Access, Excel, and even FrontPage, are all tools. This assignment will help you discover how to use a database tool to support a business. You will be analyzing the data in the database and answering the questions in the exercise to create the queries and reports that are necessary to determine what the Inn’s current business situation is. Instructions: * If you have not yet set up your access to MyMISLab, go to the Learning Materials page for the proper steps and codes. It is vital that you set up MyMISLab correctly to ensure you have access to the resources for CMIS 351. Go to MyMISLab and download the Exercise Data File: MIS11ch03 for this assignment from the Assignment 1 folder (after logging in, click Course Content, choose View All Content, then scroll down to the Assignment 1 folder that appears after the 15 Lesson folders). You may download either the 2003 or the 2007 database file. If the data file doesn’t open, check your browser’s pop-up blocker settings or try holding down the Ctrl key when clicking the file name. * After you have downloaded and opened the file, click FILE> SAVE AS>, then SAVE the file to your hard drive according to the following assignment naming standards: ourlastname_CMIS351_assign1. mdb Once the file has been saved, you can open it and start working on your assignment. * Analyze the data in the database and in the application exercise. * To complete this assignment, you will need to do data calculations. Remember to follow good database practice here by not saving your calculations as part of the data table itself (they should appear only in your queries). * Create queries and reports that will provide information to help management at the Quee n’s Inn to be more competitive and profitable.If you look at the original database you downloaded, you will see that it provides suggestions for the three reports that should be created for The Queen’s Inn. These empty templates will give you an indication of what queries and reports you must create for this assignment. * If you need a refresher on using Access databases, see the resources on the Supplemental Information for Access Assignments page. * Write a brief report (1-2 pages) describing what database information (from your analysis) would make the business more competitive and profitable.Your report must include, at a minimum, answers to the four questions in the last paragraph of the exercise on page 93 of the textbook. For this assignment you must hand in: * an Access database with reports and queries as described above (the number of queries and reports will be up to you) OR * if you do not have access to a computer on which you can install Microsoft Access, you may use another database tool. If you do this, you must also submit the following: * an E-R diagram of your database that clearly shows the primary and foreign keys for each table. a screen shot of the first page of the contents of each table. Alternatively, you may create a report that dumps the contents of a table and submit a single page of that report. * queries that you designed to create each report. Show both the query design and the query output. * the reports required in the assignment In either case, you must also submit a Word document containing a report as described in the assignment instructions on page 93. When you are ready to submit your assignment, listen to this message from your Course Coordinator.Marking criteria: You will be marked according to the following criteria. Database| 4 marks| | * implemented correctly * queries are correct| | Reports| 3 marks| | * provide required information * comprehensive * readable (accurate spelling and grammar)| | Written report| 3 marks| | * professional, business-like * relevant * correct (covers required information) | | Once you have completed the assignment, you must return to this Web page and follow the instructions on the right to submit your assignment for marking.